The Arts and Crafts use of stained glass was popular in Ireland, with Harry Clarke the best-known artist and also with Evie Hone. In general, movements such as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art and multimedia, particularly involving video are described as postmodern. His student de Lemos, who became head of the San Francisco Art Institute, Director of the Stanford University Museum and Art Gallery, and Editor-in-Chief of the School Arts Magazine, expanded and substantially revised Dow's ideas in over 150 monographs and articles for art schools in the United States and Britain. By virtue of placing a urinal on a pedestal in an art exhibition, the illusion of an artwork was created.[59]. This page was last edited on 28 September 2022, at 19:22. [81] His purpose was to create objects that were finely crafted and beautifully rendered. Their asymmetrical arrangements, contrasting large areas of flat color with patches of intricate pattern, offered a compositional format that the Impressionists could use to develop their ideas about color Sometimes, even the most avant-garde artists need the security of knowing that the path they have chosen to follow has some roots in tradition. In the United States, the Arts and Crafts style initiated a variety of attempts to reinterpret European Arts and Crafts ideals for Americans. Celtic revival took hold here, and motifs such as the Glasgow rose became popularised. Dr Rosa Schapire, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, 1919 (German expressionism). Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. [75] For Jean-Franois Lyotard, it was painting of the artists Valerio Adami, Daniel Buren, Marcel Duchamp, Bracha Ettinger, and Barnett Newman that, after the avant-garde's time and the painting of Paul Czanne and Wassily Kandinsky, was the vehicle for new ideas of the sublime in contemporary art.[76][77]. [64] Swedish artist Bjrn Kjelltoft urinated in Fountain at Moderna Museet in Stockholm in 1999. [57] Duchamp said the R stood for Richard, French slang for "moneybags", which makes Fountain a kind of scatological golden calf. Ideas rejected by the modern aesthetic have been re-established. These are all good questions you can ask yourself the next time youre at a gallery and stumble upon a Matisse from the early 20th century or an expressionist exhibition that explores the era. What interests you is the concept that wants to put 50 Campbell soup cans on a canvas.[82][86]. Popova, Mayakovsky and Malevich became part of the Soviet establishment and the brief Agitprop movement of the 1920s; Popova died of a fever, Malevich would be briefly imprisoned and forced to paint in the new state-approved style, and Mayakovsky committed suicide on April 14, 1930. The Impressionists were a group of artists renowned for their innovative painting techniques and approach to using color in art. When explaining the purpose of his However they were prevented from performing in many major European cities by the outbreak of war. Also, expressionism stressed on the loss of authenticity and spirituality that was to be seen in the world. By the outbreak of war in 1914 it was in decline and faced a crisis. [51], In 2014, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum featured the exhibition "Italian Futurism, 19091944: Reconstructing the Universe". Duchamp drew an ink copy of the 1917 Stieglitz photograph in 1964 for the cover of an exhibition catalogue, Marcel Duchamp: Ready-mades, etc., 19131964. "[2] In Duchamp's presentation, the urinal's orientation was altered from its usual positioning. Impressionism had a great influence on artists across Europe and the United States. How do you think the artist was feeling when they decided to squeeze a splotch of paint on the canvas right from the bottle? It is said to have started with the work of Vincent van Gogh and extends into modern art as we know it today. Despite the chauvinistic nature of the Italian Futurist program, many serious professional female artists adopted the style, especially so after the end of the first World War. The Tate, which denied that the duo had succeeded in urinating into the sculpture itself,[66] banned them from the premises stating that they were threatening "works of art and our staff." "Pluralism and diversity" are other defining features. [52] Similarly, philosopher Stephen Hicks[53] argued that Duchamp, who was quite familiar with the history of European art, was obviously making a provocative statement with Fountain: The impact of Duchamp's Fountain changed the way people view art due to his focus upon "cerebral art" contrary to merely "retinal art", as this was a means to engage prospective audiences in a thought-provoking way as opposed to satisfying the aesthetic status quo "turning from classicism to modernity".[54]. [12] Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists. Definitions of Impressionism and Expressionism: Characteristics of Impressionism and Expressionism: Difference Between Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, Difference Between Fine Art and Illustration, Difference Between Modern Art and Postmodern Art, Difference Between Pastels and Oil Pastels. Science fiction novels play an important role in Futurist literature. New artforms, such as cinema and the rise of reproduction, influenced these movements as a means of creating artworks. The neo-conservative Hilton Kramer describes postmodernism as "a creation of modernism at the end of its tether. Postmodernism rejects the notion of advancement or progress in art per se, and thus aims to overturn the "myth of the avant-garde". Futurist architects were sometimes at odds with the Fascist state's tendency towards Roman imperial-classical aesthetic patterns. In Canada, the term Arts and Crafts predominates, but Craftsman is also recognized. The main difference with a sound sculpture is that a sound installation has a three-dimensional space and the axes with which the different sound objects are being organized are not exclusively Jacqueline Sarsby" Alfred Powell: Idealism and Realism in the Cotswolds". [25], Morris began experimenting with various crafts and designing furniture and interiors. The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the conventional art community in France. This project was never built and Sant'Elia was killed in the First World War, but his ideas influenced later generations of architects and artists. But we would desire to see it mastered. Futurism (Italian: Futurismo) was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy, and to a lesser extent in other countries, in the early 20th century. The specialty was that the majority of the paintings captures how a particular scene would look at a glimpse. That's not a bad name for a pissotire. [65] One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed Video art. This was a period where all convention was challenged in a long parade of brave new ideas about the nature of art. [3][10], Fountain is included in the Marcel Duchamp catalogue raisonn by Arturo Schwarz; The complete works of Marcel Duchamp (number 345). The "splash" generated by Fountain is thus tied to its "mirrorical return," like the faucet in the title. [16], The London suburb of Bedford Park, built mainly in the 1880s and 1890s, has about 360 Arts and Crafts style houses and was once famous for its Aesthetic residents. Wood. They represent a Copernican shift in art. Popular modern art movements included Fauvism, Impressionism, Surrealism, Post-Impressionism, Dadaism, Cubism, and Expressionism. The Museum of the American Arts and Crafts Movement in St. Petersburg, Florida, opened its doors in 2021.[83][84]. [3], Marinetti would begin to contradict himself when, in 1911, he called Luisa, Marchesa Casati a Futurist; he dedicated a portrait of himself painted by Carr to her, the said dedication declaring Casati as a Futurist being pasted on the canvas itself. [29] Postmodernism introduced elements of commercialism, kitsch and a general camp aesthetic within its artistic context; postmodernism takes styles from past periods, such as Gothicism, the Renaissance and the Baroque,[29] and mixes them so as to ignore their original use in their corresponding artistic movement. [10], In a 1964 interview with Otto Hahn, Duchamp suggested he purposefully selected a urinal because it was disagreeable. In order to capture these fleeting effects they had to work quickly. Tile, ca. Of all the artworks in this series of readymades, Fountain is perhaps the best known because the symbolic meaning of the toilet takes the conceptual challenge posed by the readymades to their most visceral extreme. The dancer no longer performs a story, a clear content, that can be read according to the rules of ballet. For detailed discussions of Boccioni's debt to Bergson, see Petrie, Brian, "Boccioni and Bergson", Adler, Jerry, "Back to the Future", The New Yorker, September 6, 2004, p.103. In the face of this mediocrity and conservatism, Pratella unfurled "the red flag of Futurism, calling to its flaming symbol such young composers as have hearts to love and fight, minds to conceive, and brows free of cowardice.". [31] The artist chose an object of every-day life, erased its usual significance by giving it a new title, and from this point of view, gave a new purely esthetic meaning to the object. [15] When Tulip Hysteria Co-ordinating did not appear at the show, those who had expected to see it were disappointed. "Between Art and Commerce: Women, Business Ownership, and the Arts and Crafts Movement. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, and in their turn the houses throw themselves upon the motor bus and are blended with it."[10]. [98] Lewis Foreman Day, an important figure in the Arts and Crafts movement, took a different view in his dissenting report to the committee of inquiry, arguing for greater emphasis on principles of design against the growing orthodoxy of teaching design by direct working in materials. The Impressionists were a group of artists renowned for their innovative painting techniques and approach to using color in art. ", Mascia-Lees, Frances E. "American Beauty: The Middle Class Arts and Crafts Revival in the United States." (It now appears on the national side of Italian 20 eurocent coins). The Impressionists were excited by contemporary developments in color theory which helped their search for a more exact analysis of the effects of color and light in nature. There are also Futurist elements in Prokofiev's The Steel Step and in his Second Symphony. Through this article let us examine the differences between the two movements in detail. As a result of this Marcel Duchamp retired from the Board. 1903 Brooklyn Museum, William Morris. They tended to oppose Marinetti's artistic and political direction of the movement, and in 1924 the socialists, communists and anarchists walked out of the Milan Futurist Congress. The anti-Fascist voices in Futurism were not completely silenced until the annexation of Abyssinia and the Italo-German Pact of Steel in 1939. The Futurist architect Antonio Sant'Elia expressed his ideas of modernity in his drawings for La Citt Nuova (The New City) (19121914). Simpson, Robert Anning Bell and C.J.Allen were respectively professor of architecture, instructor in painting and design, and instructor in sculpture at Liverpool School of Art; Robert Catterson-Smith, the headmaster of the Birmingham Art School from 1902 to 1920, was also an AWG member; W. R. Lethaby and George Frampton were inspectors and advisors to the London County Council's (LCC) education board and in 1896, largely as a result of their work, the LCC set up the Central School of Arts and Crafts and made them joint principals. Charles Harvey and Jon Press, "William Morris and the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction", Furniture makers of America and Canada during the Arts & Crafts Movement, The first public museum exclusively dedicated to the American Arts & Crafts movement, Catalog lists with images of the major American Arts & Crafts furniture makers, Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation, The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arts_and_Crafts_movement&oldid=1116888287, History of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with dead external links from July 2022, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Belrock - Greater Sudbury, Ontario - 1907, Danahay, Martin. [5], No, not rejected. in. Impressionism and Expressionism are two movements that emerged in the world of art between which a key difference can be identified. The success of this exhibition resulted in the incorporation of The Society of Arts and Crafts (SAC), on June 28, 1897, with a mandate to "develop and encourage higher standards in the handicrafts." They were more concerned with ornamentation than construction, they had an incomplete understanding of methods of manufacture,[15] and they did not criticise industrial methods as such. Other than Matisse and Derain, other important fauvist artists include Georges Braque, Raoul Dufy, Georges Rouault, and Maurice de Vlaminck. [43], In 1881, Eglantyne Louisa Jebb, Mary Fraser Tytler and others initiated the Home Arts and Industries Association to encourage the working classes, especially those in rural areas, to take up handicrafts under supervision, not for profit, but in order to provide them with useful occupations and to improve their taste. But Futurist painting differed in both subject matter and treatment from the quiet and static Cubism of Picasso, Braque and Gris. In Iceland, Slvi Helgason's work shows Arts and Crafts influence. Impressionism was an art movement in France at the end of the 19th century. The Futurists called their style of poetry parole in libert (word autonomy), in which all ideas of meter were rejected and the word became the main unit of concern. In a way, this movement can be considered as a reaction to Impressionism. When Seurat began the painting in 1884, the island was a bucolic "[10][39], In December 2004, Duchamp's Fountain was voted the most influential artwork of the 20th century by 500 selected British art world professionals. Marinetti even later referred to her as "the 'first futurist woman. Ashbee, Philip Webb, Charles Faulkner, and A. H. [48] The first 1:1 reproduction of Fountain was authorized by Duchamp in 1950 for an exhibition in New York; two more individual pieces followed in 1953 and 1963, and then an artist's multiple was manufactured in an edition of eight in 1964. When asked why they felt they had to add to Duchamp's work, Chai said, "The urinal is there it's an invitation. [1][56], The situation in Wales was different than elsewhere in the UK. After the Second World War, many Futurist artists had difficulty in their careers because of their association with a defeated and discredited regime. The guild's work is characterised by plain surfaces of hammered silver, flowing wirework and colored stones in simple settings. In defense of the work being art, the piece continues, "The only works of art America has given are her plumbing and her bridges. the avant-garde. Tankard, Judith B. and Martin A. These installations and collages are often electrified, with moving parts and lights. Expressionism is an umbrella term for any artwork that distorts reality to match the inner feelings, views, or ideas of the artist. Arthur Danto argues "contemporary" is the broader term, and postmodern objects represent a "subsector" of the contemporary movement. As the art critic Robert Hughes observed, "In Futurism, the eye is fixed and the object moves, but it is still the basic vocabulary of Cubismfragmented and overlapping planes". "Fountain", wrote the committee, "may be a very useful object in its place, but its place is not an art exhibition, and it is by no definition, a work of art. It is a protest against the turning of men into machines, against artificial distinctions in art, and against making the immediate market value, or possibility of profit, the chief test of artistic merit. Against this definition, Art and Language's Charles Harrison and Paul Wood maintained pastiche and discontinuity are endemic to modernist art, and are deployed effectively by modern artists such as Manet and Picasso. However, its leading members, van de Velde and Hermann Muthesius, had conflicting opinions about standardization. In a sense, the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt and others, opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of following artworks.[43]. Not all Arts and Crafts artists carried out every stage in the making of goods themselves, and it was only in the twentieth century that that became essential to the definition of craftsmanship. This style of art developed before the start of the First World War and was popular Impressionism is an art style that lasted roughly two decades in the latter half of the 19th century, but Expressionism might accurately be described as the opposite of Impressionism in a sense. [76], While the Europeans tried to recreate the virtuous crafts being replaced by industrialisation, Americans tried to establish a new type of virtue to replace heroic craft production: well-decorated middle-class homes. [16][52][53], C.F.A. Published by: Architectural Association School of Architecture, Yes is More. Constable and, to a much greater degree, J. M. W. Turner often produced studies and finished works that were abstract art in everything but name. The sandal-making workshop set up by Edward Carpenter moved from Yorkshire to Letchworth Garden City and George Orwell's jibe about "every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-maniac, Quaker, 'Nature Cure' quack, pacifist, and feminist in England" going to a socialist conference in Letchworth has become famous.[85]. By the mid 19th century, the heavy, salt glazes used for generations by local craftsmen had gone out of fashion, not least as mass-produced ceramics undercut prices. [40], Dadaism can be viewed as part of the modernist propensity to challenge established styles and forms, along with Surrealism, Futurism and Abstract Expressionism. In Glasgow it was pioneered by Daniel Cottier (18381891), who had probably studied with Ballantine, and was directly influenced by William Morris, Ford Madox Brown and John Ruskin. Marinetti sought to make Futurism the official state art of Fascist Italy but failed to do so. [7] Those adherents who were not socialists, such as Alfred Hoare Powell,[20] advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lets start with fauvism. Its 1912 exhibition had been a financial failure. [95] Until the formation of the Bauhaus in Germany, the Central School was regarded as the most progressive art school in Europe. However, paradox is probably the most important modernist idea against which postmodernism reacts. "[67], The return to the traditional art forms of sculpture and painting in the late 1970s and early 1980s seen in the work of Neo-expressionist artists such as Georg Baselitz and Julian Schnabel has been described as a postmodern tendency,[68] and one of the first coherent movements to emerge in the postmodern era. Fundamentally, nonrepresentational art is work that does not represent or depict a being, place, or thing. Terms of Use and Privacy Policy: Legal. The original has been lost. Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. It was considered poor composition if the background or edges of the painting detracted from the focal point. The opera is famous (at the time of its premiere, infamous) for its "Dance of the Seven Veils".The final scene is frequently Impressionism: Impressionism tried to capture the impression or the momentary effect of a scene. Impressionism was the first movement in the canon of modern art and had a massive effect on the development of art in the 20th century. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz, Peter Reginato, Lee Lozano, were some of the younger artists emerging during the era of late modernism spawning the heyday of the art of the late 1960s. [65] The pieces he brought back to London for the next twenty years revivified interest in Welsh pottery work. It is a protest against that so-called industrial progress which produces shoddy wares, the cheapness of which is paid for by the lives of their producers and the degradation of their users. An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution, Jean-Louis Cohen, The Future of Architecture. Saint-Point uses this as a segue into her antifeminist argumentgiving women equal rights destroys their innate "potency" to strive for a better, more fulfilling life.[35]. Salome, Op. Often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physical exercise, costumes, spontaneous nudity, and various random and seemingly disconnected acts. Andrej Szczerski, "Central Europe", in Karen Livingstone and Linda Parry (eds.). The technology and excitement of flight, directly experienced by most aeropainters,[40] offered aeroplanes and aerial landscape as new subject matter. Traditionally, artists had created images where the lines, shapes, tones and colours were arranged in a way that led the eye to the focal point of the painting. I had a falling out with them, and retired from the organization. No one dared mention it. In short, its art that expresses inner realities onto the outer world. Ascott has been at the forefront of the theory and practice of telematic art since 1978 when he went online for the first time, organizing different collaborative online projects. William Morris's biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, detected the Arts and Crafts philosophy even behind the Festival of Britain (1951), the work of the designer Terence Conran (b. Viking art, also known commonly as Norse art, is a term widely accepted for the art of Scandinavian Norsemen and Viking settlements further afieldparticularly in the British Isles and Icelandduring the Viking Age of the 8th-11th centuries. The treasures in our museums now are only the common utensils used in households of that age, when hundreds of medieval churches each one a masterpiece were built by unsophisticated peasants. Marinetti made numerous moves to ingratiate himself with the regime, becoming less radical and avant-garde with each. Schwarz's: Bought by an unnamed collector in 2002 for $1.08 million. Gertrude Jekyll applied Arts and Crafts principles to garden design. [12], Jones declared that ornament "must be secondary to the thing decorated", that there must be "fitness in the ornament to the thing ornamented", and that wallpapers and carpets must not have any patterns "suggestive of anything but a level or plain". So, whats the difference between them, if they can be described in the same way? Wallpaper Sample, Compton 323, c. 1917. "[77], Exactly 100 years to the day of the opening of the First Exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists, Francis M. Naumann Fine Art opened "Marcel Duchamp Fountain: An Homage" on April 10, 2017. Baroque curves and encrustations had been stripped away to reveal the essential lines of forms unprecedented from their simplicity. dal realismo esasperato e compiaciuto (in particolare delle opere propagandistiche) alle forme asatratte (come in Dottori: Hal Foster, Neo-Futurism. [15] While there were Futurist portraits: Carr's Woman with Absinthe (1911), Severini's Self-Portrait (1912), and Boccioni's Matter (1912), it was the urban scene and vehicles in motion that typified Futurist painting; Boccioni's The Street Enters the House (1911), Severini's Dynamic Hieroglyph of the Bal Tabarin (1912), and Russolo's Automobile at Speed (1913), The Futurists held their first exhibition outside of Italy in 1912 at the Bernheim-Jeune gallery, Paris, which included works by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini, Carlo Carr, Luigi Russolo and Giacomo Balla. [49], Japanese Composer Ryuichi Sakamoto's 1986 album "Futurista" was inspired by the movement. They claimed that the simple but refined aesthetics of Arts and Crafts decorative arts would ennoble the new experience of industrial consumerism, making individuals more rational and society more harmonious. Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the creative and/or presentation process. ', Alan Crawford, "W. A. S. Benson, Machinery, and the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain"[29], William Morris shared Ruskin's critique of industrial society and at one time or another attacked the modern factory, the use of machinery, the division of labour, capitalism and the loss of traditional craft methods. "[18] Duchamp described his intent with the piece was to shift the focus of art from physical craft to intellectual interpretation. [7] Two of them, including the 1917 original, are lost. Interdisziplinaritt, Internationalitt und Aktualitt des Futurismus", Cologne 2010, The Futurist Moment: Howlers, Exploders, Crumplers, Hissers, and Scrapers, Futurism: archive audio recordings at LTM, Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Futurism&oldid=1119047189, Articles containing Italian-language text, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Francesco Cangiullo, Italian writer and painter, Escodam (Michele Leskovic), Italian poet and artist, D'Orsi Angelo 2009 'Il Futurismo tra cultura e politica. Franklin Clarkin, "Two Miles of Funny Pictures," Boston Evening Transcript, 25 April 1917. [4] The London department store Liberty & Co., founded in 1875, was a prominent retailer of goods in the style and of the "artistic dress" favoured by followers of the Arts and Crafts movement. She describes this innovative form of dance as the result of a deep collaboration with Marinetti and his poetry. They abandoned the conventional idea that the shadow of an object was made up from its color with some brown or black added. These contrasting images derive in part from John Ruskin's (18191900) The Stones of Venice, an architectural history of Venice that contains a powerful denunciation of modern industrialism to which Arts and Crafts designers returned again and again. By 1890 the Guild had 150 members, representing the increasing number of practitioners of the Arts and Crafts style. who is deeply interested and invested in the arts. [49][50][51] These editions ended up in a number of important public collections; Indiana University Art Museum, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery of Canada, Centre Georges Pompidou and Tate Modern. "The Most Famous House in Every State. The spread of Arts and Crafts ideas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the establishment of many associations and craft communities, although Morris had little to do with them because of his preoccupation with socialism at the time. The terms American Craftsman or Craftsman style are often used to denote the style of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts that prevailed between the dominant eras of Art Nouveau and Art Deco in the US, or approximately the period from 1910 to 1925. In a letter dated 23 April 1917, Stieglitz wrote of the photograph he took of Fountain: "The "Urinal" photograph is really quite a wonderEveryone who has seen it thinks it beautifulAnd it's trueit is. Distrust for the machine lay behind the many little workshops that turned their backs on the industrial world around 1900, using preindustrial techniques to create what they called 'crafts. The Impressionists are known for their lively painting techniques and use of colour. It also advances the claim of all and each to the common possession of beauty in things common and familiar, and would awaken the sense of this beauty, deadened and depressed as it now too often is, either on the one hand by luxurious superfluities, or on the other by the absence of the commonest necessities and the gnawing anxiety for the means of livelihood; not to speak of the everyday uglinesses to which we have accustomed our eyes, confused by the flood of false taste, or darkened by the hurried life of modern towns in which huge aggregations of humanity exist, equally removed from both art and nature and their kindly and refining influences. In particular, the colors used in expressionism will be intense and often non-naturalistic, meaning someones skin might be painted blue instead of tan or brown. Minimalists like Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce their late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers. [16] Baudrillard himself, since 1984, was fairly consistent in his view contemporary art, and postmodern art in particular, was inferior to the modernist art of the post World War II period,[16] while Jean-Franois Lyotard praised Contemporary painting and remarked on its evolution from Modern art. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Local materials, stone or clay, continued to be used as a matter of course.[64].
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